Researching and Writing in STEM

Scientific Articles

Scientific articles are one of the first sources of information that STEM professionals use. They help those in STEM fields to stay up-to-date on the latest trrends and to access current and developing research.

What is a scientific paper?

Primary and Secondary Sources

The materials, data, or evidenciary support used in yours, or other, research are known as sources. They are typically categorized into two categories - primary and secondary. 

Identify Primary Sources in the Sciences

Primary vs. Secondary Sources

Primary and Secondary Sources: Examples from the Sciences

What Does Primary vs. Secondary vs. Tertiary Mean?

Not all articles are created equally. Evaluating sources for relevancy and usefulness is one of the most important steps in research. To learn more about evaluating sources, go to the research guide Evaluating Journal Articles.

Title

  • The title can contain information about the topic, contents, major ideas, and participants of the paper.

Abstract

  • The abstract summarizes the paper and gives the reader a preview of the material they are about to read. 

Introduction

  • The introduction explains the purpose of the article or study. This will usually feature other relevant research or data that helps the reader to understand the material. The research question will be presented in this part of the paper and should help the reader to understand what the author expected to find or understand. Keep these questions in mind when reading the introduction:
    • What is the purpose being stated in the introduction?
    • Why would this article be of interest to experts in the field?
    • What is already know, or not known, about this topic?
    • What specifically is the hypothesis? If one is not given, what are the expectations of the author?
  • A good research article will generally answer these questions and be consistent with their explanation throughout the rest of the article. 

Method

  • The methods section of a scientific paper helps the reader to understand how the research or experiment was done. This section answers why the researcher chose specific procedures and justifies the design of the experiment. When reading the methods section, keep these questions in mind:
    • What are the specific methods used by the researcher?
    • Does the author provide a clear and viable plan for the experiment?
    • Has the researcher missed any variables that could effect the results of their findings?
    • How do the methods in this article compare with similar articles?

Results

  • The results are the findings of the experiment. It is important that the results section states the outcome of the experiment, without interpretation, which will come later in the article. Lots of times, this section will include numerical or statistical evidence, graphs, charts, or other figures to visually show the results. When reading the results section, keep these questions in mind:
    • How do the results relate to the hypothesis stated in the introduction?
      • Ex: they are correlated and support the hypothesis, they contradict the hypothesis, etc.
    • If there are differences from the hypothesis, what differences did the author find?
    • Are the findings described in an unbiased way?

Discussion

  • The discussion summarizes the findings from the experiment. This section discusses the interpretation of the data, new discoveries, or other relevant information that may have resulted from the research. The author will propose new research or insights into the problem that was presented in the introduction. When reading the discussion, keep these questions in mind:
    • Is there new information presented that was not known before?
    • Is the author unbiased in their presentation?
    • What are the real-world implications of the findings?
    • What suggestions are made about future research? If no suggestions are made, should there be?

Conclusion

  • The conclusion points out the important findings from the research. 

Tips for Reading Scientific Articles and Papers

  • Understanding a scientific article will most likely take more than one read. Don't be discouraged if you do not understand everything the first time. Reading scientific articles is a skill that takes practice!
  • Start with the broad and then move to the specific. Begin by understanding the topic of the article before trying to dig through all the fine points the author is making.
  • Always read the tables, charts, and figures. These will give a visual clue to the methods and results sections of the paper and help you to understand the data. 
  • Don't be afraid to ask questions or look up definitions. If you do not understand a term or concept, do not be afraid to ask for help or look up an explanation.

Writing lab reports is straightforward and structured. It is important to recognize that each part of a lab report is important, so take the time to complete each carefully. A lab report is broken down into eight sections: title, abstract, introduction, methods and materials, results, discussion, conclusion, and references.

Title

  • The title of the lab report should be descriptive of the experiment and reflect what the experiment analyzed.
    • Ex: "Determining the Mass Percentage of Copper in a Penny."

Abstract

  • Abstracts are a summary of the experiment as a whole and should familiarize the reader with the purpose of the experiment.
  • Abstracts should be written last, even though they are the first paragraph of the report.
  • Not all lab reports will require an abstract. However, they are often included in upper-level lab reports and should be studied carefully.
  • When writing an abstract, try to answer these questions:
    • Why was the experiment done or research conducted?
    • What problem is being addressed?
    • What results were found?
    • What are the meaning of the results?
    • How is the problem better understood now than before?

Introduction

  • The introduction discusses the problem being studied and other theory that is relevant to understanding the results.
  • The hypothesis of the experiment and the motivation for the research are stated in this section.
  • Write the introduction in your own words. Try not to copy a lab manual or other guidelines. Instead, show comprehension of the experiment by briefly explaining the problem.

Methods and Materials

  • The methods and materials section provides an overview of the equipment, apparatus, or other substances used in the experiment, as well as the steps taken during the experiment. If using specific amounts of materials, make sure the amount is listed.
    • Ex: pipette, graduated cylinder, 1.13mg of Na
  • List the steps taken as they actually happened, not as they were supposed to happen.
  • If written correctly, another researcher should be able to duplicate the experiement and get the same or very similar results. 

Results

  • The results show the data that was collected or found during the experiment. 
  • Explain in words the data that was collected.
  • If using graphs, charts, or figures, present them in the results section of the lab report.
    • Figures should be labeled numerically, as "Table 1", "Graph 3", "Chart 7", etc.
  • Calculations to understand the data can also be presented in the results.

Discussion

  • The discussion is one of the most important parts of the lab report. It analyzes the results of the experiment and talks about the data.
  • If any results are unexpected, explain why they are unexpected and how they did or did not effect the data obtained.
  • Analyze the strenghts and weaknesses of the design of the experiment and compare your results to other similar experiments.
  • If there are any errors, analyze and explain them.
  • When writing a discussion, try to answer these questions:
    • What do the results indicate?
    • What is the significance of the results?
    • Are there any gaps in knowledge?
    • Are there any new questions that have been raised?

Conclusion

  • The conclusion is a summation of the experiment. It should clearly and concisely state what was learned and why it is important.
  • If there is future work that needs to be done, it can be explained in the conclusion.

References

  • If using outside sources to support a claim or explain background information, those source must be cited in the reference section of the lab report.
  • In the event that no outside sources are used, the references section may be left out.
  • Different fields use different citation methods, so make sure you are citing in the accepted standard.